The principles listed below are the result of long-term research studies on the origins of drug abuse behaviors and the common elements of effective prevention programs. These principles were developed to help prevention practitioners use the results of prevention research to address drug use among children and adolescents in communities across the country. Parents, educators, and community leaders can use these principles to help guide their thinking, planning, selection, and delivery of drug abuse prevention programs at the community level.
Prevention programs are generally designed for use in a particular setting, such as at home, at school, or within the community, but can be adapted for use in several settings. In addition, programs are also designed with the intended audience in mind: for everyone in the population, for those at greater risk, and for those already involved with drugs or other problem behaviors. Some programs can be geared for more than one audience.
Principle 1 - Prevention programs should enhance protective factors and reverse or reduce risk factors (Hawkins et al. 2002).
* The risk of becoming a drug abuser involves the relationship among the number and type of risk factors (e.g., deviant attitudes and behaviors) and protective factors (e.g., parental support) (Wills et al. 1996).
* The potential impact of specific risk and protective factors changes with age. For example, risk factors within the family have greater impact on a younger child, while association with drug-abusing peers may be a more significant risk factor for an adolescent (Gerstein and Green 1993; Dishion et al. 1999).
* Early intervention with risk factors (e.g., aggressive behavior and poor self-control) often has a greater impact than later intervention by changing a child’s life path (trajectory) away from problems and toward positive behaviors (Ialongo et al. 2001).
* While risk and protective factors can affect people of all groups, these factors can have a different effect depending on a person’s age, gender, ethnicity, culture, and environment (Beauvais et al. 1996; Moon et al. 1999).
Principle 2 - Prevention programs should address all forms of drug abuse, alone or in combination, including the underage use of legal drugs (e.g., tobacco or alcohol); the use of illegal drugs (e.g., marijuana or heroin); and the inappropriate use of legally obtained substances (e.g., inhalants), prescription medications, or over-the-counter drugs (Johnston et al. 2002).
Principle 3 - Prevention programs should address the type of drug abuse problem in the local community, target modifiable risk factors, and strengthen identified protective factors (Hawkins et al. 2002).
Principle 4 - Prevention programs should be tailored to address risks specific to population or audience characteristics, such as age, gender, and ethnicity, to improve program effectiveness (Oetting et al. 1997).
Principle 5 - Family-based prevention programs should enhance family bonding and relationships and include parenting skills; practice in developing, discussing, and enforcing family policies on substance abuse; and training in drug education and information (Ashery et al. 1998).
Family bonding is the bedrock of the relationship between parents and children. Bonding can be strengthened through skills training on parent supportiveness of children, parent-child communication, and parental involvement (Kosterman et al. 1997).
* Parental monitoring and supervision are critical for drug abuse prevention. These skills can be enhanced with training on rule-setting; techniques for monitoring activities; praise for appropriate behavior; and moderate, consistent discipline that enforces defined family rules (Kosterman et al. 2001).
* Drug education and information for parents or caregivers reinforces what children are learning about the harmful effects of drugs and opens opportunities for family discussions about the abuse of legal and illegal substances (Bauman et al. 2001).
* Brief, family-focused interventions for the general population can positively change specific parenting behavior that can reduce later risks of drug abuse (Spoth et al. 2002b).
Principle 6 - Prevention programs can be designed to intervene as early as preschool to address risk factors for drug abuse, such as aggressive behavior, poor social skills, and academic difficulties (Webster-Stratton 1998; Webster-Stratton et al. 2001).
Principle 7 - Prevention programs for elementary school children should target improving academic and social-emotional learning to address risk factors for drug abuse, such as early aggression, academic failure, and school dropout. Education should focus on the following skills (Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group 2002; Ialongo et al. 2001):
* self-control;
* emotional awareness;
* communication;
* social problem-solving; and
* academic support, especially in reading.
Principle 8 - Prevention programs for middle or junior high and high school students should increase academic and social competence with the following skills (Botvin et al. 1995; Scheier et al. 1999):
* study habits and academic support;
* communication;
* peer relationships;
* self-efficacy and assertiveness;
* drug resistance skills;
* reinforcement of anti-drug attitudes; and
* strengthening of personal commitments against drug abuse.
Principle 9 - Prevention programs aimed at general populations at key transition points, such as the transition to middle school, can produce beneficial effects even among high-risk families and children. Such interventions do not single out risk populations and, therefore, reduce labeling and promote bonding to school and community (Botvin et al. 1995; Dishion et al. 2002).
Principle 10 - Community prevention programs that combine two or more effective programs, such as family-based and school-based programs, can be more effective than a single program alone (Battistich et al. 1997).
Principle 11 - Community prevention programs reaching populations in multiple settings—for example, schools, clubs, faith-based organizations, and the media—are most effective when they present consistent, community-wide messages in each setting (Chou et al. 1998).
Principle 12 - When communities adapt programs to match their needs, community norms, or differing cultural requirements, they should retain core elements of the original research-based intervention (Spoth et al. 2002b), which include:
* Structure (how the program is organized and constructed);
* Content (the information, skills, and strategies of the program); and
* Delivery (how the program is adapted, implemented, and evaluated).
Principle 13 - Prevention programs should be long-term with repeated interventions (i.e., booster programs) to reinforce the original prevention goals. Research shows that the benefits from middle school prevention programs diminish without followup programs in high school (Scheier et al. 1999).
Principle 14 - Prevention programs should include teacher training on good classroom management practices, such as rewarding appropriate student behavior. Such techniques help to foster students’ positive behavior, achievement, academic motivation, and school bonding (Ialongo et al. 2001).
Principle 15 - Prevention programs are most effective when they employ interactive techniques, such as peer discussion groups and parent role-playing, that allow for active involvement in learning about drug abuse and reinforcing skills (Botvin et al. 1995).
Principle 16 - Research-based prevention programs can be cost-effective. Similar to earlier research, recent research shows that for each dollar invested in prevention, a savings of up to $10 in treatment for alcohol or other substance abuse can be seen (Aos et al. 2001; Hawkins et al. 1999; Pentz 1998; Spoth et al. 2002a).
NIDA’s prevention research program addresses all stages of child development, a mix of audiences and settings, and the delivery of effective services at the community level. The Institute focuses on risks for drug abuse and other problem behaviors that occur throughout a child’s development. Prevention interventions designed and tested to address risks can help children at every step along their developmental path. Working more broadly with families, schools, and communities, scientists have found effective ways to help people gain the skills and approaches to stop problem behaviors before they occur. Research funded by NIDA and other Federal research organizations—such as the National Institute of Mental Health and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention—shows that early intervention can prevent many adolescent risk behaviors.
Showing posts with label Dadah. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Dadah. Show all posts
Friday, May 22, 2009
Wednesday, April 29, 2009
Inhalants
Inhalants are a diverse group of volatile substances whose chemical vapors can be inhaled to produce psychoactive (mind-altering) effects. While other abused substances can be inhaled, the term “inhalants” is used to describe substances that are rarely, if ever, taken by any other route of administration. A variety of products common in the home and workplace contain substances that can be inhaled to get high; however, people do not typically think of these products (e.g., spray paints, glues, and cleaning fluids) as drugs because they were never intended to induce intoxicating effects. Yet young children and adolescents can easily obtain these extremely toxic substances, and are among those most likely to abuse them. In fact, more 8th graders have tried inhalants than any other illicit drug.1
What Types of Products are Abused as Inhalants?
Inhalants fall into the following categories:
Volatile solvents—liquids that vaporize at room temperature
* Industrial or household products, including paint thinners or removers, degreasers, dry-cleaning fluids, gasoline, lighter fluid
* Art or office supply solvents, including correction fluids, felt-tip marker fluid, electronic contact cleaners, glue
Aerosols—sprays that contain propellants and solvents
* Household aerosol propellants in items such as spray paints, hair or deodorant sprays, fabric protector sprays, aerosol computer cleaning products, and vegetable oil sprays
Gases—found in household or commercial products and used as medical anesthetics
* Household or commercial products, including butane lighters and propane tanks, whipped cream aerosols or dispensers (whippets), and refrigerant gases
* Medical anesthetics, such as ether, chloroform, halothane, and nitrous oxide (“laughing gas”)
Nitrites—a special class of inhalants that are used primarily as sexual enhancers
* Organic nitrites are volatiles that include cyclohexyl, butyl, and amyl nitrites, commonly known as “poppers.” Amyl nitrite is still used in certain diagnostic medical procedures. When marketed for illicit use, they are often sold in small brown bottles labeled as “video head cleaner,” “room odorizer,” “leather cleaner,” or “liquid aroma.”
These various products contain a wide range of chemicals such as:
* toluene (spray paints, rubber cement, gasoline),
* chlorinated hydrocarbons (dry cleaning chemicals, correction fluids),
* hexane (glues, gasoline),
* benzene (gasoline),
* methylene chloride (varnish removers, paint thinners),
* butane (cigarette lighter refills, air fresheners), and
* nitrous oxide (whipped cream dispensers, gas cylinders).
Adolescents tend to abuse different products at different ages.2 Among new users aged 12–15, the most commonly abused inhalants were glue, shoe polish, spray paints, gasoline, and lighter fluid. Among new users aged 16 or 17, the most commonly abused products were nitrous oxide or whippets. Nitrites are the class of inhalants most commonly abused by adults.3
How are Inhalants Abused?
Inhalants can be breathed in through the nose or mouth in a variety of ways, such as sniffing or snorting fumes from a container, spraying aerosols directly into the nose or mouth, or placing an inhalant-soaked rag in the mouth (“huffing”). Users may also inhale fumes from a balloon or a plastic or paper bag that contains an inhalant.
The intoxication produced by inhalants usually lasts just a few minutes; therefore, users often try to extend the “high” by continuing to inhale repeatedly over several hours.
How Do Inhalants Affect the Brain?
The effects of inhalants are similar to those of alcohol, including slurred speech, lack of coordination, euphoria, and dizziness. Inhalant abusers may also experience lightheadedness, hallucinations, and delusions. With repeated inhalations, many users feel less inhibited and less in control. Some may feel drowsy for several hours and experience a lingering headache. Chemicals found in different types of inhaled products may produce a variety of additional effects, such as confusion, nausea, or vomiting.
By displacing air in the lungs, inhalants deprive the body of oxygen, a condition known as hypoxia. Hypoxia can damage cells throughout the body, but the cells of the brain are especially sensitive to it. The symptoms of brain hypoxia vary according to which regions of the brain are affected: the hippocampus, for example, helps control memory, so someone who repeatedly uses inhalants may lose the ability to learn new things or may have a hard time carrying on simple conversations.
Long-term inhalant abuse can also break down myelin, a fatty tissue that surrounds and protects some nerve fibers. Myelin helps nerve fibers carry their messages quickly and efficiently, and when damaged can lead to muscle spasms and tremors or even permanent difficulty with basic actions like walking, bending, and talking.
Although not very common, addiction to inhalants can occur with repeated abuse. According to the 2006 Treatment Episode Dataset, inhalants were reported as the primary substance abused by less than 0.1 percent of all individuals admitted to substance abuse treatment.4 However, of those individuals who reported inhalants as their primary, secondary, or tertiary drug of abuse, nearly half were adolescents aged 12 to 17. This age group represents only 8 percent of total admissions to treatment.5
What Other Adverse Effects Do Inhalants Have on Health?
Lethal effects:
Sniffing highly concentrated amounts of the chemicals in solvents or aerosol sprays can directly induce heart failure and death within minutes of a session of repeated inhalations. This syndrome, known as “sudden sniffing death,” can result from a single session of inhalant use by an otherwise healthy young person. Sudden sniffing death is particularly associated with the abuse of butane, propane, and chemicals in aerosols.
High concentrations of inhalants may also cause death from suffocation by displacing oxygen in the lungs, causing the user to lose consciousness and stop breathing. Deliberately inhaling from a paper or plastic bag or in a closed area greatly increases the chances of suffocation. Even when using aerosols or volatile products for their legitimate purposes (i.e., painting, cleaning), it is wise to do so in a well-ventilated room or outdoors.
Harmful irreversible effects:
* Hearing loss—spray paints, glues, dewaxers, dry-cleaning chemicals, correction fluids
* Peripheral neuropathies or limb spasms—glues, gasoline, whipped cream dispensers, gas cylinders
* Central nervous system or brain damage—spray paints, glues, dewaxers
* Bone marrow damage—gasoline
Serious but potentially reversible effects:
* Liver and kidney damage—correction fluids, dry-cleaning fluids
* Blood oxygen depletion—varnish removers, paint thinners
HIV/AIDS:
Because nitrites are abused to enhance sexual pleasure and performance, they can be associated with unsafe sexual practices that greatly increase the risk of contracting and spreading infectious diseases such as HIV and hepatitis.
How Widespread is Inhalant Abuse?
Monitoring the Future*
According to the Monitoring the Future survey, more 8th graders (15.6 percent) have tried inhalants in their lifetime than any other illicit drug, including marijuana. Lifetime use (use at least once during a respondent’s lifetime) of inhalants was reported by 15.6 percent of 8th graders, 13.6 percent of 10th graders, and 10.5 percent of 12th graders in 2007; 3.9 percent of 8th graders, 2.5 percent of 10th graders, and 1.2 percent of 12th graders were current users of inhalants (had used at least once during the 30 days preceding response to the survey).
National Survey on Drug Use and Health**
Data from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health show that the primary abusers of most inhalants are adolescents ages 12 to 17. In 2006, 4.4 percent of adolescents reported using inhalants in the past year. Among young adults aged 18 to 25, past-year use of inhalants decreased from 2.1 percent in 2005 to 1.8 percent in 2006. Of the 783,000 persons aged 12 or older who tried inhalants for the first time within the previous year, 77.2 percent were under age 18 when they first used.
What Types of Products are Abused as Inhalants?
Inhalants fall into the following categories:
Volatile solvents—liquids that vaporize at room temperature
* Industrial or household products, including paint thinners or removers, degreasers, dry-cleaning fluids, gasoline, lighter fluid
* Art or office supply solvents, including correction fluids, felt-tip marker fluid, electronic contact cleaners, glue
Aerosols—sprays that contain propellants and solvents
* Household aerosol propellants in items such as spray paints, hair or deodorant sprays, fabric protector sprays, aerosol computer cleaning products, and vegetable oil sprays
Gases—found in household or commercial products and used as medical anesthetics
* Household or commercial products, including butane lighters and propane tanks, whipped cream aerosols or dispensers (whippets), and refrigerant gases
* Medical anesthetics, such as ether, chloroform, halothane, and nitrous oxide (“laughing gas”)
Nitrites—a special class of inhalants that are used primarily as sexual enhancers
* Organic nitrites are volatiles that include cyclohexyl, butyl, and amyl nitrites, commonly known as “poppers.” Amyl nitrite is still used in certain diagnostic medical procedures. When marketed for illicit use, they are often sold in small brown bottles labeled as “video head cleaner,” “room odorizer,” “leather cleaner,” or “liquid aroma.”
These various products contain a wide range of chemicals such as:
* toluene (spray paints, rubber cement, gasoline),
* chlorinated hydrocarbons (dry cleaning chemicals, correction fluids),
* hexane (glues, gasoline),
* benzene (gasoline),
* methylene chloride (varnish removers, paint thinners),
* butane (cigarette lighter refills, air fresheners), and
* nitrous oxide (whipped cream dispensers, gas cylinders).
Adolescents tend to abuse different products at different ages.2 Among new users aged 12–15, the most commonly abused inhalants were glue, shoe polish, spray paints, gasoline, and lighter fluid. Among new users aged 16 or 17, the most commonly abused products were nitrous oxide or whippets. Nitrites are the class of inhalants most commonly abused by adults.3
How are Inhalants Abused?
Inhalants can be breathed in through the nose or mouth in a variety of ways, such as sniffing or snorting fumes from a container, spraying aerosols directly into the nose or mouth, or placing an inhalant-soaked rag in the mouth (“huffing”). Users may also inhale fumes from a balloon or a plastic or paper bag that contains an inhalant.
The intoxication produced by inhalants usually lasts just a few minutes; therefore, users often try to extend the “high” by continuing to inhale repeatedly over several hours.
How Do Inhalants Affect the Brain?
The effects of inhalants are similar to those of alcohol, including slurred speech, lack of coordination, euphoria, and dizziness. Inhalant abusers may also experience lightheadedness, hallucinations, and delusions. With repeated inhalations, many users feel less inhibited and less in control. Some may feel drowsy for several hours and experience a lingering headache. Chemicals found in different types of inhaled products may produce a variety of additional effects, such as confusion, nausea, or vomiting.
By displacing air in the lungs, inhalants deprive the body of oxygen, a condition known as hypoxia. Hypoxia can damage cells throughout the body, but the cells of the brain are especially sensitive to it. The symptoms of brain hypoxia vary according to which regions of the brain are affected: the hippocampus, for example, helps control memory, so someone who repeatedly uses inhalants may lose the ability to learn new things or may have a hard time carrying on simple conversations.
Long-term inhalant abuse can also break down myelin, a fatty tissue that surrounds and protects some nerve fibers. Myelin helps nerve fibers carry their messages quickly and efficiently, and when damaged can lead to muscle spasms and tremors or even permanent difficulty with basic actions like walking, bending, and talking.
Although not very common, addiction to inhalants can occur with repeated abuse. According to the 2006 Treatment Episode Dataset, inhalants were reported as the primary substance abused by less than 0.1 percent of all individuals admitted to substance abuse treatment.4 However, of those individuals who reported inhalants as their primary, secondary, or tertiary drug of abuse, nearly half were adolescents aged 12 to 17. This age group represents only 8 percent of total admissions to treatment.5
What Other Adverse Effects Do Inhalants Have on Health?
Lethal effects:
Sniffing highly concentrated amounts of the chemicals in solvents or aerosol sprays can directly induce heart failure and death within minutes of a session of repeated inhalations. This syndrome, known as “sudden sniffing death,” can result from a single session of inhalant use by an otherwise healthy young person. Sudden sniffing death is particularly associated with the abuse of butane, propane, and chemicals in aerosols.
High concentrations of inhalants may also cause death from suffocation by displacing oxygen in the lungs, causing the user to lose consciousness and stop breathing. Deliberately inhaling from a paper or plastic bag or in a closed area greatly increases the chances of suffocation. Even when using aerosols or volatile products for their legitimate purposes (i.e., painting, cleaning), it is wise to do so in a well-ventilated room or outdoors.
Harmful irreversible effects:
* Hearing loss—spray paints, glues, dewaxers, dry-cleaning chemicals, correction fluids
* Peripheral neuropathies or limb spasms—glues, gasoline, whipped cream dispensers, gas cylinders
* Central nervous system or brain damage—spray paints, glues, dewaxers
* Bone marrow damage—gasoline
Serious but potentially reversible effects:
* Liver and kidney damage—correction fluids, dry-cleaning fluids
* Blood oxygen depletion—varnish removers, paint thinners
HIV/AIDS:
Because nitrites are abused to enhance sexual pleasure and performance, they can be associated with unsafe sexual practices that greatly increase the risk of contracting and spreading infectious diseases such as HIV and hepatitis.
How Widespread is Inhalant Abuse?
Monitoring the Future*
According to the Monitoring the Future survey, more 8th graders (15.6 percent) have tried inhalants in their lifetime than any other illicit drug, including marijuana. Lifetime use (use at least once during a respondent’s lifetime) of inhalants was reported by 15.6 percent of 8th graders, 13.6 percent of 10th graders, and 10.5 percent of 12th graders in 2007; 3.9 percent of 8th graders, 2.5 percent of 10th graders, and 1.2 percent of 12th graders were current users of inhalants (had used at least once during the 30 days preceding response to the survey).
National Survey on Drug Use and Health**
Data from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health show that the primary abusers of most inhalants are adolescents ages 12 to 17. In 2006, 4.4 percent of adolescents reported using inhalants in the past year. Among young adults aged 18 to 25, past-year use of inhalants decreased from 2.1 percent in 2005 to 1.8 percent in 2006. Of the 783,000 persons aged 12 or older who tried inhalants for the first time within the previous year, 77.2 percent were under age 18 when they first used.
Sunday, April 5, 2009
Kesan Penagihan Alkohol
Sebagaimana warga USM sedia maklum, insiden yang telah berlaku ke atas salah seorang kakitangan Pejabat Perhubungan Awam USM pada 20 Ogos lalu telah meninggalkan kesan yang amat mendalam ke atas setiap individu yang mengenalinya. Pemergiannya penuh tragis akibat daripada sikap tidak bertanggungjawab pemandu di bawah pengaruh alkohol.
Langkah drastik yang diambil oleh USM dengan mengadakan Kempen Anti Alkohol adalah wajar bagi menunjukkan tentangan warga kampus terhadap sikap individu yang memandu di bawah pengaruh alkohol. Selain daripada itu, ia juga memupuk warga USM khasnya dan masyarakat umum tentang padahnya akibat penagihan alkohol.
PenawaRacun kali ini mengambil kesempatan berkongsi maklumat tentang bahaya penagihan alkohol.
Larangan agama sememangnya berasas. Malah, setiap agama di dunia ini turut melarang tabiat tersebut di kalangan para penganutnya. Selain memabukkan alkohol juga memudaratkan kesihatan diri sekiranya diamalkan berterusan. Ia umpama kombinasi dadah dan racun kepada badan kita.
Kesan ketagihan akibat meminum alkohol bukannya bergantung kepada jenis alkohol tetapi jumlah yang diminum pada satu-satu masa. Pada dasarnya terdapat dua kesan yang ketara pada penagih alkohol iaitu kesan jangka pendek dan jangka panjang.
Kesan jangka pendek pengambilan alkohol lebih kurang satu botol besar menjadikan seseorang itu kurang daya koordinasi seperti tidak boleh berjalan dengan betul dan tidak boleh membuka pintu. Dalam masa yang singkat ini juga boleh menyebabkan hangover. Hangover lazimnya disebabkan oleh keracunan alkohol, bahan lain dalam alkohol dan tindakbalas ketagih alkohol. Tanda-tanda hangover alkohol termasuklah sakit kepala, loya, muntah, cirit birit, gangguan pergerakan usus dan menggeletar selama 8 – 12 jam kemudian.
Kesan jangka panjang akan dirasai selepas meminumnya selama beberapa bulan atau tahun. Kesan utama adalah seperti sakit jantung, hati atau penyakit dalam perut. Bila situasi ini berlaku mereka akan kurang selera makan, kekurangan vitamin, jangkitan penyakit, mati pucuk atau kekurangan haid. Kematian yang awal adalah lebih kerap pada orang yang kuat minum, terutamanya daripada sakit jantung atau hati, radang paru-paru, kanser, keracunan alkohol yang teruk, kemalangan, pembunuhan dan pembunuhan diri.
Kesan pada otak
Pada asasnya selepas diminum, alkohol akan meresap dari usus kecil ke dalam darah. Alkohol terus dibawa ke jantung yang kemudiannya mengepam darah beralkohol tadi ke seluruh tubuh. Dari sini ia terus meresap ke dalam otak dan seterusnya ke urat saraf. Otak merupakan salah satu organ penting yang dimiliki oleh manusia kerana otaklah yang mengawal segala pergerakan dan perlakuan seseorang dan dengan kemasukan bahan asing ini ke dalamnya ia akan mempengaruhi pergerakan dan kelakuan peminumnya.
Di sini, alkohol menyebabkan penindasan kawasan-kawasan yang biasanya mengawal maruah dan disiplin diri sehingga peminum mula merasa kurang sifat malu, fikiran bercelaru, dan pergerakannya pula agak tidak terkawal.
Peminum juga kurang keupayaan dari segi belajar, membentuk idea spontan, menumpukan fikiran, dan membuat pertimbangan yang teliti. Semakin banyak jumlah alkohol yang diminum semakin kuat otak tertindas sehinggakan boleh menyebabkan tidak sedarkan diri dan seterusnya kematian.
Kesan pada hati
Kesan alkohol yang paling bahaya adalah kesan pada hati. Setiap kali seorang peminum meminum alkohol, hati akan mengalami kecederaan (mendapat luka). Sel hati akan mati dan menjadi parut. Parut ini akan mengurangkan kemampuan hati untuk berfungsi dengan sempurna. Parut yang serius akan menyebabkan hati tidak dapat berfungsi langsung. Keadaan ini disebut sirosis hati dan boleh membawa maut.
Bengkak hati (hepatitis) juga boleh berlaku disebabkan oleh lebihan toksik alkohol. Pada mulanya ia menyebabkan hati mengembang dan lama kelamaan saluran darah akan mengecut. Ini menyebabkan darah tidak dapat mengalir ke hati dengan sempurna dan akhirnya saluran darah akan membengkak lalu pecah. Pada peringkat kritikal, penghidap hepatitis akan mengalami muntah darah dan najis mereka akan bercampur dengan darah.
Kesan pada perut
Alkohol juga menyebabkan kerengsaan perut (gastritis) yang akhirnya boleh membawa kepada ulser. Bagi mereka yang memang menghidapi ulser perut, sakitnya akan menjadi semakin teruk.
Kesan pada saraf
Kerosakan saraf boleh menyebabkan pelbagai jenis penyakit seperti sindrom Wernicke-Korsakoff dan kerosakan sel-sel otak, yang seterusnya membawa kepada komplikasi psikiatri. Peminum boleh mengalami halusinasi pendengaran, amnesia, paranoia, depresi, dan kecenderungan membunuh diri.
Kesan pada janin
Peminum alkohol kronik yang sedang hamil boleh menyebabkan kandungannya mempunyai ciri-ciri kecacatan seperti kekurangan berat badan, saiz kepala yang terlalu kecil berbanding tubuh, kurang penyelarasan otot, keadaan muka yang rata, dan kelemahan sendi-sendi.
Selain daripada kesan-kesan di atas, alkohol juga bertindak dengan pelbagai sistem dan organ tubuh. Contohnya, kesan terhadap sistem peredaran tubuh menyebabkan darah lebih banyak dialirkan ke kulit. Ini menyebabkan kulit peminum menjadi kemerah-merahan dan perpeluhan meningkat. Pengepaman jantung juga bertambah pantas dan kuat seperti individu yang sedang melakukan senaman. Kepada penghidap penyakit jantung, mereka mempunyai kemungkinan diserang penyakit itu.
Peminum alkohol juga didapati lebih cenderung membuang air kecil dengan kerap kerana etanol boleh merencat hormon penahan kencing.
Peminum alkohol juga mungkin mengalami anemia, hipoglisemia (kekurangan gula di dalam darah), dan ketandusan vitamin.
Bagi perokok yang meminum alkohol boleh meningkatkan risiko kanser sebanyak 15 kali terutamanya pada bahagian mulut dan tekak.
Selain daripada kesan ke atas kesihatan ia boleh juga menimbulkan pelbagai masalah sosial. Masalah ketagihan alkohol boleh merosakkan hubungan persahabatan, kehilangan pekerjaan, hutang, simpanan keluarga dihabiskan, masalah rumah tangga, penganiayaan, penderaan, keruntuhan moral dan sebagainya.
Oleh itu hindarilah dari meminum minuman tersebut kerana jelas keburukan alkohol jauh mengatasi kebaikannya.
Langkah drastik yang diambil oleh USM dengan mengadakan Kempen Anti Alkohol adalah wajar bagi menunjukkan tentangan warga kampus terhadap sikap individu yang memandu di bawah pengaruh alkohol. Selain daripada itu, ia juga memupuk warga USM khasnya dan masyarakat umum tentang padahnya akibat penagihan alkohol.
PenawaRacun kali ini mengambil kesempatan berkongsi maklumat tentang bahaya penagihan alkohol.
Larangan agama sememangnya berasas. Malah, setiap agama di dunia ini turut melarang tabiat tersebut di kalangan para penganutnya. Selain memabukkan alkohol juga memudaratkan kesihatan diri sekiranya diamalkan berterusan. Ia umpama kombinasi dadah dan racun kepada badan kita.
Kesan ketagihan akibat meminum alkohol bukannya bergantung kepada jenis alkohol tetapi jumlah yang diminum pada satu-satu masa. Pada dasarnya terdapat dua kesan yang ketara pada penagih alkohol iaitu kesan jangka pendek dan jangka panjang.
Kesan jangka pendek pengambilan alkohol lebih kurang satu botol besar menjadikan seseorang itu kurang daya koordinasi seperti tidak boleh berjalan dengan betul dan tidak boleh membuka pintu. Dalam masa yang singkat ini juga boleh menyebabkan hangover. Hangover lazimnya disebabkan oleh keracunan alkohol, bahan lain dalam alkohol dan tindakbalas ketagih alkohol. Tanda-tanda hangover alkohol termasuklah sakit kepala, loya, muntah, cirit birit, gangguan pergerakan usus dan menggeletar selama 8 – 12 jam kemudian.
Kesan jangka panjang akan dirasai selepas meminumnya selama beberapa bulan atau tahun. Kesan utama adalah seperti sakit jantung, hati atau penyakit dalam perut. Bila situasi ini berlaku mereka akan kurang selera makan, kekurangan vitamin, jangkitan penyakit, mati pucuk atau kekurangan haid. Kematian yang awal adalah lebih kerap pada orang yang kuat minum, terutamanya daripada sakit jantung atau hati, radang paru-paru, kanser, keracunan alkohol yang teruk, kemalangan, pembunuhan dan pembunuhan diri.
Kesan pada otak
Pada asasnya selepas diminum, alkohol akan meresap dari usus kecil ke dalam darah. Alkohol terus dibawa ke jantung yang kemudiannya mengepam darah beralkohol tadi ke seluruh tubuh. Dari sini ia terus meresap ke dalam otak dan seterusnya ke urat saraf. Otak merupakan salah satu organ penting yang dimiliki oleh manusia kerana otaklah yang mengawal segala pergerakan dan perlakuan seseorang dan dengan kemasukan bahan asing ini ke dalamnya ia akan mempengaruhi pergerakan dan kelakuan peminumnya.
Di sini, alkohol menyebabkan penindasan kawasan-kawasan yang biasanya mengawal maruah dan disiplin diri sehingga peminum mula merasa kurang sifat malu, fikiran bercelaru, dan pergerakannya pula agak tidak terkawal.
Peminum juga kurang keupayaan dari segi belajar, membentuk idea spontan, menumpukan fikiran, dan membuat pertimbangan yang teliti. Semakin banyak jumlah alkohol yang diminum semakin kuat otak tertindas sehinggakan boleh menyebabkan tidak sedarkan diri dan seterusnya kematian.
Kesan pada hati
Kesan alkohol yang paling bahaya adalah kesan pada hati. Setiap kali seorang peminum meminum alkohol, hati akan mengalami kecederaan (mendapat luka). Sel hati akan mati dan menjadi parut. Parut ini akan mengurangkan kemampuan hati untuk berfungsi dengan sempurna. Parut yang serius akan menyebabkan hati tidak dapat berfungsi langsung. Keadaan ini disebut sirosis hati dan boleh membawa maut.
Bengkak hati (hepatitis) juga boleh berlaku disebabkan oleh lebihan toksik alkohol. Pada mulanya ia menyebabkan hati mengembang dan lama kelamaan saluran darah akan mengecut. Ini menyebabkan darah tidak dapat mengalir ke hati dengan sempurna dan akhirnya saluran darah akan membengkak lalu pecah. Pada peringkat kritikal, penghidap hepatitis akan mengalami muntah darah dan najis mereka akan bercampur dengan darah.
Kesan pada perut
Alkohol juga menyebabkan kerengsaan perut (gastritis) yang akhirnya boleh membawa kepada ulser. Bagi mereka yang memang menghidapi ulser perut, sakitnya akan menjadi semakin teruk.
Kesan pada saraf
Kerosakan saraf boleh menyebabkan pelbagai jenis penyakit seperti sindrom Wernicke-Korsakoff dan kerosakan sel-sel otak, yang seterusnya membawa kepada komplikasi psikiatri. Peminum boleh mengalami halusinasi pendengaran, amnesia, paranoia, depresi, dan kecenderungan membunuh diri.
Kesan pada janin
Peminum alkohol kronik yang sedang hamil boleh menyebabkan kandungannya mempunyai ciri-ciri kecacatan seperti kekurangan berat badan, saiz kepala yang terlalu kecil berbanding tubuh, kurang penyelarasan otot, keadaan muka yang rata, dan kelemahan sendi-sendi.
Selain daripada kesan-kesan di atas, alkohol juga bertindak dengan pelbagai sistem dan organ tubuh. Contohnya, kesan terhadap sistem peredaran tubuh menyebabkan darah lebih banyak dialirkan ke kulit. Ini menyebabkan kulit peminum menjadi kemerah-merahan dan perpeluhan meningkat. Pengepaman jantung juga bertambah pantas dan kuat seperti individu yang sedang melakukan senaman. Kepada penghidap penyakit jantung, mereka mempunyai kemungkinan diserang penyakit itu.
Peminum alkohol juga didapati lebih cenderung membuang air kecil dengan kerap kerana etanol boleh merencat hormon penahan kencing.
Peminum alkohol juga mungkin mengalami anemia, hipoglisemia (kekurangan gula di dalam darah), dan ketandusan vitamin.
Bagi perokok yang meminum alkohol boleh meningkatkan risiko kanser sebanyak 15 kali terutamanya pada bahagian mulut dan tekak.
Selain daripada kesan ke atas kesihatan ia boleh juga menimbulkan pelbagai masalah sosial. Masalah ketagihan alkohol boleh merosakkan hubungan persahabatan, kehilangan pekerjaan, hutang, simpanan keluarga dihabiskan, masalah rumah tangga, penganiayaan, penderaan, keruntuhan moral dan sebagainya.
Oleh itu hindarilah dari meminum minuman tersebut kerana jelas keburukan alkohol jauh mengatasi kebaikannya.
Wednesday, April 1, 2009
A Study of the National Aftercare Programme
This study of the Aftercare Programme is a follow-up of an earlier study of official treatment and rehabilitation programme for institutionalized drug dependents. This postal survey used a self-administered questionnaire that contained salient features and factors elicited in the qualitative approach of an earlier case study. The respondents are mainly rehabilitation officers involved with the Aftercare Programme throughout Peninsular Malaysia.
The major findings were the goals and objectives of the Aftercare Programme, which are to help recovering addicts to reintegrate into society, and to be fully functioning without resorting to drugs need to be translated into measurable components that can be effectively implemented and monitored. Lack of resources both material and personnel were apparent. The programme officers have to perform functions that have no relationship to the programme goals. Lack of professionally skilled staff impedes the progress of staff-client relationship and the success of client’s psychosocial adaptation. Administrative work features a great deal in the function of the officers thereby reducing the time for interaction with their clients. Various aspects of the Aftercare Programme need refinement and redevelopment so as to ensure that the recovering addicts would have greater likelihood not to relapse. The involvement of the family, volunteers and the community in general needs to be further enhanced and mobilized. Support from ex-addicts helping in various aspects of treatment and rehabilitation is a recommended strategy to enhance the programme success. Better data management of client’s records is needed to improve the monitoring system and facilitate the conducting of meaningful programme evaluation.
The major findings were the goals and objectives of the Aftercare Programme, which are to help recovering addicts to reintegrate into society, and to be fully functioning without resorting to drugs need to be translated into measurable components that can be effectively implemented and monitored. Lack of resources both material and personnel were apparent. The programme officers have to perform functions that have no relationship to the programme goals. Lack of professionally skilled staff impedes the progress of staff-client relationship and the success of client’s psychosocial adaptation. Administrative work features a great deal in the function of the officers thereby reducing the time for interaction with their clients. Various aspects of the Aftercare Programme need refinement and redevelopment so as to ensure that the recovering addicts would have greater likelihood not to relapse. The involvement of the family, volunteers and the community in general needs to be further enhanced and mobilized. Support from ex-addicts helping in various aspects of treatment and rehabilitation is a recommended strategy to enhance the programme success. Better data management of client’s records is needed to improve the monitoring system and facilitate the conducting of meaningful programme evaluation.
A Study into Certain Aspects of Drug Education Programmes in Malaysian Schools
This survey was conducted on all government secondary schools in the states of Perlis, Kedah, Perak and Penang. The study covered evaluation of several aspects of existing drug education programmes in Malaysian schools, as well as research activities directed towards developing and testing new drug education programmes for secondary schools.
This study reports on five main aspects or activities related to drug education in the 250 secondary schools surveyed in the states of Kedah, Penang, Perak and Perlis. The data was analyzed with respect to two important variables, namely, categories of schools and the risk level of the school. The five main aspects covered in this survey are, printed materials such as posters and pamphlets, non-printed materials (slides and films), and talks, seminars and workshops, and finally the school curriculum. In addition the comments of the headmasters regarding the drug education programmes in their schools were also sought.
The results of the survey indicated that the headmasters in general considered the existing facilities like posters, pamphlets, films, slides, exhibitions, talks, seminars and workshops as relatively useful for drug education. There is a slight indication that the larger schools tended to have more opportunities to participate in these activities than smaller schools and that schools in high-risk areas were more receptive of these activities. This trend was not strong but is present for some of these activities. In addition, the three school subjects considered most relevant to drug education are Civics, Health Education and Islamic Religious Instruction. It was felt that an attempt should be made to provide a systematic drug education programme in the existing syllabus in order to help prepare students to stay away from drugs while in school and especially after they leave school. The study concludes that an important and desirable feature of any drug education programme in schools is its preventive nature, thus it should employ strategies aimed at helping students to develop correct attitudes and values towards drugs and healthy living. Such attitudes and values will form the basis for students’ decisions on the use of drugs when they leave school.
This study reports on five main aspects or activities related to drug education in the 250 secondary schools surveyed in the states of Kedah, Penang, Perak and Perlis. The data was analyzed with respect to two important variables, namely, categories of schools and the risk level of the school. The five main aspects covered in this survey are, printed materials such as posters and pamphlets, non-printed materials (slides and films), and talks, seminars and workshops, and finally the school curriculum. In addition the comments of the headmasters regarding the drug education programmes in their schools were also sought.
The results of the survey indicated that the headmasters in general considered the existing facilities like posters, pamphlets, films, slides, exhibitions, talks, seminars and workshops as relatively useful for drug education. There is a slight indication that the larger schools tended to have more opportunities to participate in these activities than smaller schools and that schools in high-risk areas were more receptive of these activities. This trend was not strong but is present for some of these activities. In addition, the three school subjects considered most relevant to drug education are Civics, Health Education and Islamic Religious Instruction. It was felt that an attempt should be made to provide a systematic drug education programme in the existing syllabus in order to help prepare students to stay away from drugs while in school and especially after they leave school. The study concludes that an important and desirable feature of any drug education programme in schools is its preventive nature, thus it should employ strategies aimed at helping students to develop correct attitudes and values towards drugs and healthy living. Such attitudes and values will form the basis for students’ decisions on the use of drugs when they leave school.
A Comparative Study of the Psycho-Social Profile of Drug Using and Non-Drug Using School Children
The purpose of the study was to obtain a psychosocial profile of a group of secondary school children in Penang as an attempt to understand the background of potential drug users in schools. More specifically the study attempted to compare the background and some characteristics of the drug users and the non-drug users in school.
The major findings related to the general pattern on substance use for the full sample are: 73% of the Penang upper secondary school children have never taken any form of soft drugs (cigarettes and alcohol) or hard drugs (prescription drugs from either legal or illegal sources like tranquillizers, barbiturates and stimulants, as well as illegal drugs like opium, cannabis and heroin). Use patterns show that only a small minority of hard drug users was frequent or polydrug users, a greater number were occasional monodrug users using drugs on experimental basis. Alcohol and cigarettes have remained as the most commonly used soft drugs by secondary school children. A larger proportion of students using hard drugs tended to smoke and/or drink. The average age of initiation for smoking and using hard drugs is 16 years and above. Drug abuse adolescents tended to report low religiosity and poor relationship with their families. Large variability in school performance of hard drug users was noted; they have a lower general self-concept, lower value on moral-self, family-self and behaviour. There was no difference in anxiety level between drug users and non-users. Attempts to relate locus of control with substance-abuse behaviour found no significant relationship between the two variables. However, the trend revealed that drug users tended to be more externally controlled compared to non-users. Finally in comparing psychological needs, the study revealed that drug users tended to be more achieving, impulsive, aggressive, dominating, attention-seeking, to engage in fantasized-achievement and take greater risks.
The major findings related to the general pattern on substance use for the full sample are: 73% of the Penang upper secondary school children have never taken any form of soft drugs (cigarettes and alcohol) or hard drugs (prescription drugs from either legal or illegal sources like tranquillizers, barbiturates and stimulants, as well as illegal drugs like opium, cannabis and heroin). Use patterns show that only a small minority of hard drug users was frequent or polydrug users, a greater number were occasional monodrug users using drugs on experimental basis. Alcohol and cigarettes have remained as the most commonly used soft drugs by secondary school children. A larger proportion of students using hard drugs tended to smoke and/or drink. The average age of initiation for smoking and using hard drugs is 16 years and above. Drug abuse adolescents tended to report low religiosity and poor relationship with their families. Large variability in school performance of hard drug users was noted; they have a lower general self-concept, lower value on moral-self, family-self and behaviour. There was no difference in anxiety level between drug users and non-users. Attempts to relate locus of control with substance-abuse behaviour found no significant relationship between the two variables. However, the trend revealed that drug users tended to be more externally controlled compared to non-users. Finally in comparing psychological needs, the study revealed that drug users tended to be more achieving, impulsive, aggressive, dominating, attention-seeking, to engage in fantasized-achievement and take greater risks.
A Follow-up Study on Drug Addicts after Treatment and Rehabilitation
This is a prospective six-month follow-up study on drug addicts after treatment and rehabilitation. The main concern is to find out during this critical period, whether the addicts were able to stay off drugs or fall back to drugs and what happened during the process.
The major findings were: quite a number of the addicts cannot be traced after completing treatment and rehabilitation; 25% dropped-out of the study mainly due to drug use; 39.2% of those follow-up were re-addicted while 17.9% "slipped"; only 17.9% managed to abstain from drugs during the six months follow-up period. Addicts who relapsed can be divided into 2 groups: those who returned to drugs immediately after rehabilitation, and those who fall back several months later after attempting to stay away from drugs without success. The main reasons identified for relapse were mixing with addict-friends, boredom, craving for drugs and emotional pressure. The majority of those who slipped first started to consume alcohol because they thought alcohol is not a drug. A combination of various factors such as strong family support, avoiding drug addicts or the temptations, mixing with non-addicts, self-realization, having a job, determination and beneficial activities to fill their time helped the addicts to abstain from drugs. Cigarette smoking is rather common and most of the cases returned to cigarette smoking rather immediately. Majority of those who dropped-out, relapsed or slipped, started alcohol use soon after treatment.
The study recommended for the whole treatment and rehabilitation programme to be reviewed. Families need to be educated about addiction, rehabilitation, relapse prevention and handling of addicts. Rehabilitated addicted have to be integrated into their families before they return to the larger community. The problem of easy availability of drugs must be dealt with seriously. Joining self-help groups, recreational activities and guidance from recovering addicts are important.
The major findings were: quite a number of the addicts cannot be traced after completing treatment and rehabilitation; 25% dropped-out of the study mainly due to drug use; 39.2% of those follow-up were re-addicted while 17.9% "slipped"; only 17.9% managed to abstain from drugs during the six months follow-up period. Addicts who relapsed can be divided into 2 groups: those who returned to drugs immediately after rehabilitation, and those who fall back several months later after attempting to stay away from drugs without success. The main reasons identified for relapse were mixing with addict-friends, boredom, craving for drugs and emotional pressure. The majority of those who slipped first started to consume alcohol because they thought alcohol is not a drug. A combination of various factors such as strong family support, avoiding drug addicts or the temptations, mixing with non-addicts, self-realization, having a job, determination and beneficial activities to fill their time helped the addicts to abstain from drugs. Cigarette smoking is rather common and most of the cases returned to cigarette smoking rather immediately. Majority of those who dropped-out, relapsed or slipped, started alcohol use soon after treatment.
The study recommended for the whole treatment and rehabilitation programme to be reviewed. Families need to be educated about addiction, rehabilitation, relapse prevention and handling of addicts. Rehabilitated addicted have to be integrated into their families before they return to the larger community. The problem of easy availability of drugs must be dealt with seriously. Joining self-help groups, recreational activities and guidance from recovering addicts are important.
Study of Misuse of Drugs among Secondary School Children
Two studies in this area of research were conducted, the first in the west coast states of Penang and Selangor, followed by a comparative study in the east coast state of Kelantan. The misuse of drugs by secondary school children in Malaysia has caused considerable public and official concern. These studies were conducted to investigate the extent and nature of illicit drug taking amongst Malaysian secondary school children; and to compare the drug using individuals against their non-drug using contemporaries in terms of their social background, educational aspirations and performance, social relationships, general attitudes and value system, self concepts, and their knowledge of and attitude towards drug and drug taking, as well as the reasons drug users give for their habit and comparison of the users of different types of drug in these regions.
The west coast study gives an introduction to the scientific background, and considers the drugs in use (ganja (cannabis), heroin, morphine, opium, sedatives, tranquillizers, amphetamines) and their effects, and the social and psychological characteristics of the drug user. An appropriate methodology is suggested for dealing with as sensitive a topic as drug use. The studies describe the patterns of drug use revealed on self-reported questionnaires administered to over 16,000 school children in the west coast states and to over 4,700 school children in Kelantan. Striking similarities were found between the east and west coast states in all the study aspects surveyed. Both surveys showed a very consistent picture of the level and nature of drug abuse amongst this sample population. The three states of Penang, Selangor and Kelantan – have contrasting traditions and present-day economic and social concerns; and yet in all three the problem of youthful drug abuse have been shown to have much the same characteristics. That ten percent of the secondary school population has experience of drug substances, some of which may be addictive and all of which are illegal, is cause for concern; but that the majority of these individuals cease the use of drugs after brief experimentation is reason for responding to the problem with caution. Over-reaction on the part of society might well have the effect of maintaining such experimenters on their drugs, and increasing the already apparent interest in illegal drugs admitted to by a significant minority of individuals who have never experienced any illegal drug. (Indeed, a realistic way was expressed to members of the survey team by a number of headmasters in Kelantan, who feared that the very conducting of survey might itself strengthen curiosity about drugs amongst their pupils).
The studies concluded that there is a serious problem of drug abuse without this problem reaching epidemic proportions, the treatment facilities available are inadequate; the most damaging way society – parents, teachers, policy makers and others – could respond would be to see the issue as a social menace, without realizing the normal human motivations that have led the adolescent generation to use drugs; treat the curious and experimenting adolescent as reasonable individuals who can be educated; treat regular users in a compassionate manner rather than alienating them by the process of stigmatization; be honest in using the process of influence; and above all realize that the menace to society lies in the manufacturers, traffickers and pushers of drugs rather than in their commercial victims.
The west coast study gives an introduction to the scientific background, and considers the drugs in use (ganja (cannabis), heroin, morphine, opium, sedatives, tranquillizers, amphetamines) and their effects, and the social and psychological characteristics of the drug user. An appropriate methodology is suggested for dealing with as sensitive a topic as drug use. The studies describe the patterns of drug use revealed on self-reported questionnaires administered to over 16,000 school children in the west coast states and to over 4,700 school children in Kelantan. Striking similarities were found between the east and west coast states in all the study aspects surveyed. Both surveys showed a very consistent picture of the level and nature of drug abuse amongst this sample population. The three states of Penang, Selangor and Kelantan – have contrasting traditions and present-day economic and social concerns; and yet in all three the problem of youthful drug abuse have been shown to have much the same characteristics. That ten percent of the secondary school population has experience of drug substances, some of which may be addictive and all of which are illegal, is cause for concern; but that the majority of these individuals cease the use of drugs after brief experimentation is reason for responding to the problem with caution. Over-reaction on the part of society might well have the effect of maintaining such experimenters on their drugs, and increasing the already apparent interest in illegal drugs admitted to by a significant minority of individuals who have never experienced any illegal drug. (Indeed, a realistic way was expressed to members of the survey team by a number of headmasters in Kelantan, who feared that the very conducting of survey might itself strengthen curiosity about drugs amongst their pupils).
The studies concluded that there is a serious problem of drug abuse without this problem reaching epidemic proportions, the treatment facilities available are inadequate; the most damaging way society – parents, teachers, policy makers and others – could respond would be to see the issue as a social menace, without realizing the normal human motivations that have led the adolescent generation to use drugs; treat the curious and experimenting adolescent as reasonable individuals who can be educated; treat regular users in a compassionate manner rather than alienating them by the process of stigmatization; be honest in using the process of influence; and above all realize that the menace to society lies in the manufacturers, traffickers and pushers of drugs rather than in their commercial victims.
Drug Abuse and Dependence among Adolescents in Malaysia
The purpose of the study is to examine the problem of young drug abusers of 21 years old and below. It also aims to examine the trend of drug abuse among this group, over the years 1978 through 1987. The socio-demographic characteristics of these young abusers and their general pattern of drug use were examined.
The study concluded that a majority of the young drug abusers in Malaysia, identified over the years 1978 – 1987 were not chronic and heavy users. There are some influences on the pattern of drug use and the socio-demographic background of young abusers by ethnicity, academic status and age. A larger proportion of the Malay young abusers attained higher education. This indicates a need to investigate further on the psychosocial factors that contributed to this phenomenon. Late adolescence (15 – 19 years old) was found to be the most vulnerable time period to drug abuse for student abusers. A larger proportion of student abusers were found using cannabis while a larger proportion of non-student abusers were found using heroin. A majority of the non-student abusers were found to be ‘drop-outs’ of Primary Six or LCE.
The study concluded that a majority of the young drug abusers in Malaysia, identified over the years 1978 – 1987 were not chronic and heavy users. There are some influences on the pattern of drug use and the socio-demographic background of young abusers by ethnicity, academic status and age. A larger proportion of the Malay young abusers attained higher education. This indicates a need to investigate further on the psychosocial factors that contributed to this phenomenon. Late adolescence (15 – 19 years old) was found to be the most vulnerable time period to drug abuse for student abusers. A larger proportion of student abusers were found using cannabis while a larger proportion of non-student abusers were found using heroin. A majority of the non-student abusers were found to be ‘drop-outs’ of Primary Six or LCE.
Sunday, July 27, 2008
Failure Attribution and Its Relation to Future Expectancy of Success within the context of Drug Addiction (Ling Ming Hook & Dr Mohammad Haji-Yusuf)
The objective of this study was to examine why drugs inmates failed to overcome their drug habit and to find the correlation between their attribution and future expectancy of success.
To this end, Weiner's(1971) attribution theory was used as the basis of study. A total of 114 inmates(62 Malay male inmates and 52 Chinese male inmates) from Penjara Dadah, Kajang were selected as subjects. A specially designed questionnaire was set to measure inmates' failure attribution, drug-free expectancy and helping-behaviour expectancy. Data were analyzed using the SPSS-X(Statistical Packages for Social Sciences-X)program, with t-test and Pearson Correlation as statistical tools.
It was generally found that inmates failure attribution was not influenced by ethnic factor. However certain attribution patterns tend to exist as to how the inmates attributed their failure. Regarding future expectancy of success, it was found that there was a negative correlation between failure attribution and drug-free expectancy. But there was no significant correlation between failure attribution and helping-behaviour expectancy. Results lent only partial support to Weiner's(1971) attribution theory.
(Abstrak Kertas Kerja yang dibentangkan di Seminar Kebangsaan Pertama Persatuan Psikologi Malaysia(PSIMA)di UKM pada 27-28hb Februari 1989)
To this end, Weiner's(1971) attribution theory was used as the basis of study. A total of 114 inmates(62 Malay male inmates and 52 Chinese male inmates) from Penjara Dadah, Kajang were selected as subjects. A specially designed questionnaire was set to measure inmates' failure attribution, drug-free expectancy and helping-behaviour expectancy. Data were analyzed using the SPSS-X(Statistical Packages for Social Sciences-X)program, with t-test and Pearson Correlation as statistical tools.
It was generally found that inmates failure attribution was not influenced by ethnic factor. However certain attribution patterns tend to exist as to how the inmates attributed their failure. Regarding future expectancy of success, it was found that there was a negative correlation between failure attribution and drug-free expectancy. But there was no significant correlation between failure attribution and helping-behaviour expectancy. Results lent only partial support to Weiner's(1971) attribution theory.
(Abstrak Kertas Kerja yang dibentangkan di Seminar Kebangsaan Pertama Persatuan Psikologi Malaysia(PSIMA)di UKM pada 27-28hb Februari 1989)
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